LARHYSS JOURNAL 1112-3680 / 2521-9782
DRINKING WATER PROBLEMS IN RURAL AREAS: REVIEW OF POINT-OF-USE METHODS TO IMPROVE WATER QUALITY AND PUBLIC HEALTH
Abstract
Waterborne pathogens from poor sanitation are the main cause of drinking water problems facing humanity in the 21st century, leading to infections and diarrhea. This results in over half a million deaths annually, with most of them occurring in developing countries such as Indonesia. Due to the lack of access to centralized water treatment facilities, point-of-use (POU) systems have been suggested as an important solution for water treatment in developing communities. These systems are user-friendly, low-cost, low-maintenance, and do not depend on the power grid. Importantly, they treat and reduce the number of pathogens in the water supply, and many POU systems have been implemented and used by communities on a household scale. However, the POU system has limitations that hinder its implementation in Indonesia. To examine and evaluate the technology implemented in POU systems, this review focuses on systems that can serve households or communities. The advantages, disadvantages, and limitations of technology that have existed in the last decade are explained. By taking the case of Indonesia, it is hoped that this review can provide an evaluation and illustration of its application in similar developing countries. Another affordable technological solution suggested that could benefit people relying on unsafe water sources.
Keywords
Full Text:
PDFReferences
ARIVIA N., RATNADI I. G. A. A., KARTINAWATI K. T. (2021). Faktor risiko tingginya angka kejadian diare pada balita di Puskesmas Kabupaten Gianyar, Bali. AMJ (Aesculapius Medical Journal), Vol. 1, Issue 1, pp. 55–62.
BETANCOURT W. Q., ROSE J. B. (2004). Drinking water treatment process for removal of Cryptosporidium and Giardia, Veterinary Parasitology, Vol. 126, Issues 1-2, pp. 219-234. doi: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2004.09.002
BOUALI A. C., SERDECHNOVA M., BLAWERT C., TEDIM J., FERREIRA M. G. S., ZHELUDKEVICH M. L. (2021). Layered double hydroxides (LDHs) as functional materials for the corrosion protection of aluminum alloys: A review, Applied Materials Today, Vol. 21, Paper 100857. doi: 10.1016/j.apmt.2020.100857
BUSE H. Y., MORRIS B. J., STRUEWING I. T., SZABO J. G. (2019). Chlorine and Monochloramine Disinfection of Legionella pneumophila Colonizing Copper and Polyvinyl Chloride Drinking Water Biofilms, Applied and Environmental Microbiology, Vol. 85, Issue 7, Paper e02956-18. doi: 10.1128/AEM.02956-18
CDC (2022). Household Water Treatment. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2 p.
CLARK P. A., PINEDO C. A., FADUS M., CAPUZZI S. (2012). Slow-sand water filter: design, implementation, accessibility and sustainability in developing countries, Medical science monitor: international medical journal of experimental and clinical research, Vol. 18(7), pp. RA105–RA117. doi: 10.12659/msm.883200
CLASEN T., CAIRNCROSS S., HALLER L., BARTRAM J., WALKER D. (2007). Cost-effectiveness of water quality interventions for preventing diarrhoeal disease in developing countries, Journal of Water and Health, Vol. 5, pp. 599–608. doi: 10.2166/wh.2007.010
CRIDER Y., SULTANA S., UNICOMB L., DAVIS J., LUBY S. P., PICKERING A. J. (2018). Can you taste it? Taste detection and acceptability thresholds for chlorine residual in drinking water in Dhaka, Bangladesh, Science of The Total Environment, Vol. 613-614, pp. 840-846. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2017.09.135
DOU Y., YAO Y., WU G., GAO G., ZATLOUKAL M., HÉLIX-NIELSEN C., ZHANG W. (2022). A defect-rich layered double hydroxide nanofiber filter with solar-driven regeneration for wastewater treatment, Chemical Engineering Journal, Vol. 30, Paper 132842. doi: 10.1016/j.cej.2021.132842
DU X., SHI Y., JEGATHEESAN V., HAQ I. U. (2020). A Review on the Mechanism, Impacts and Control Methods of Membrane Fouling in MBR System, Membranes, Vol. 10, Issue 2, pp. 24. doi: 10.3390/membranes10020024
DVORAK B. I., SKIPTON S. O. (2014). Drinking Water Treatment: Reverse Osmosis, Institute of Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of Nebraska-Lincoln Extension, 4 p.
EFSTRATIOU A., ONGERTH J. E., KARANIS P. (2017). Waterborne transmission of protozoan parasites: review of worldwide outbreaks—an update 2011–2016, Water Research, Vol. 114, pp. 14–22. doi: 10.1016/j.watres.2017.01.036
FORANO C., BRUNA F., MOUSTY C., PREVOT V. (2018). Interactions between biological cells and layered double hydroxides: Towards functional materials, The Chemical Record, Vol. 18, Issues 7-8, pp. 1150−1166. doi: 10.1002/tcr.201700102
FRANCIS M. R., SARKAR R., ROY S., JAFFAR S., MOHAN V. R., KANG G., BALRAJ V. (2016). Effectiveness of Membrane Filtration to Improve Drinking Water: A Quasi-Experimental Study from Rural Southern India, The American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene, Vol. 95, Issue 5, pp. 1192–1200. doi: 10.4269/ajtmh.15-0675
FUKUGAICHI S., TOMOSUGI Y., AONO H. (2022). Facile synthesis of hydrophilic layered double hydroxide film on aluminum plate, Inorganic Chemistry Communications Vol. 142, Paper 109647. doi: 10.1016/j.inoche.2022.109647
GARCÍA-GIL Á., MARTINEZ A., POLO-LÓPEZ M. I., MARUGÁN J. (2020). Kinetic modeling of the synergistic thermal and spectral actions on the inactivation of viruses in water by sunlight, Water Research, Vol. 183, Paper 116074. doi: 10.1016/j.watres.2020.116074.
GÄRTNER, N., GERMANN, L., WANYAMA, K., OUMA, H., MEIERHOFER, R. (2021). Keeping water from kiosks clean: strategies for reducing recontamination during transport and storage in Eastern Uganda, Water Research X, Vol. 10, pp. 100079. doi: 10.1016/j.wroa.2020.100079
GHAFFOUR N., MISSIMER T. M., AMY G. L. (2013). Technical review and evaluation of the economics of water desalination: current and future challenges for better water supply sustainability, Desalination, Vol. 309, pp. 197-207 doi: 10.1016/j.desal.2012.10.015.
IHSAN T., JOHAN E., FUKUGAICHI S., MATSUE N. (2023). Enhancing rural drinking water safety using Mg-Al-type layered double hydroxide foil as a new point-of-use disinfection tool, Journal of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for Development, Vol. 13, Issue 11, pp. 921–930. doi: 10.2166/washdev.2023.206
IHSAN T., JOHAN E., FUKUGAICHI S., MARUYAMA M., MITSUNOBU S., MATSUE N. (2024). Innovative DIY drinking water disinfection for underserved communities, Science of The Total Environment, Vol. 927 pp. 172257. doi: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.172257
IKHSAN A. N., THOHIRA M.C., DANIEL D. (2022). Analysis of packaged drinking water use in Indonesia in the last decades: trends, socio-economic determinants, and safety aspect, Water Policy, Vol. 24, pp. 1287-1305. doi: 10.2166/wp.2022.048
IMTIYAZ I., PUTRI G.L., HARTONO D.M., ZULKARNAIN F., PRIAD C. R. (2021). Effect of boiling and water storage practices on E. coli contamination of drinking water in the city of Bekasi (case study: Jatiluhur, Sumur Batu, and Jatirangga Villages), IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, Vol. 633, Issue 2021, Paper 012016 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/633/1/012016
INDRIATMOKO R. H., RAHARDJO N. (2015). Kajian pendahuluan sistem pemanfaatan air hujan, Jurnal Air Indonesia, Vol. 8, Issue 1, pp. 105-114. doi: 10.29122/jai.v8i1.2387
JERN M. (2022). Can you drink the tap water in Indonesia incl Bali? https://tappwater.co/en/tap-water-filter-indonesia-bali/
JIN S., FALLGREN P. H., MORRIS J. M., CHEN Q. (2007). Removal of bacteria and viruses from waters using layered double hydroxide nanocomposites, Science and Technology of Advanced Materials, Vol. 8, pp. 67–70. doi: 10.1016/j.stam.2006.09.003
JOHAN E., IHSAN T., FUKUGAICHI S., MATSUE N. (2023). Aluminum foil immersed in alkalized seawater removes Escherichia coli from drinking water, Journal of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for Development, Vol. 13, Issue 9, pp. 681–686. doi: 10.2166/washdev.2023.057
JOHAN E., IHSAN T., MATSUE N. (2023). Simple sterilization of rural household water by LDH (Layered Double Hydroxide)-embedded sheet, 7th International Symposium on Green Technology for Value Chains (Green VC), 14 – 15 November 2023, Bandung: Indonesia (In press)
KHAN S. M., WITOLA, W. H. (2023). Past, current, and potential treatments for cryptosporidiosis in humans and farm animals: A comprehensive review, Frontiers in cellular and infection microbiology, Vol. 13, pp. 1115522. doi: 10.3389/fcimb.2023.1115522
LIU J., DUAN C., ZHOU J., LI X., QIAN G., XU Z. P. (2013). Adsorption of bacteria onto layered double hydroxide particles to form biogranule-like aggregates, Applied Clay Science, Vol. 75–76, pp. 39–45. doi: 10.1016/j.clay.2013.02.007
MAHMOUD A., AMIN A. S., MOHAMED A. A. (2023). Fouling in reverse osmosis membranes: monitoring, characterization, mitigation strategies and future directions, Heliyon, Vol. 9, Issue 4, Paper 14908. doi: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e14908.
MCGUIGAN K. G., CONROY R. M., MOSLER H. J., DU PREEZ M., UBOMBA-JASWA E., FERNANDEZ-IBAÑEZ P. (2012). Solar water disinfection (SODIS): a review from bench-top to roof-top, Journal of Hazardous Materials, Vol. 235-236, pp. 29–46. doi: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2012.07.053
NASTITI A., RAHMALIA A., MUNTALIF B. S., SUDRAJAT A., ROOSMINI D. (2013). Informing the drinking water sector using health risk-based approach: Challenges in application and policy implication in Indonesia, The 4th International Seminar Department of Environmental Engineering 2013
PARK J. A., LEE C. G., KANG J. K., KIM S. B. (2012). Bacteriophage removal by Ni/Al layered double hydroxide in batch and flow-through column experiments, Journal of Environmental Science and Health, Part A, Vol. 47, pp. 2060–2068 doi: 10.1080/10934529.2012.695704
PATEL S. K., DESHMUKH A., WANG Z., QIN M., EPSZTEIN R., ELIMELECH M. (2020). The relative insignificance of advanced materials in enhancing the energy efficiency of desalination technologies (Perspective), Energy & Environmental Science, Vol. 13, pp. 1694-1710 doi: 10.1039/D0EE00341G.
PATEL D. D., MEHTA D. J., AZAMATHULLA H. M., SHAIKH M. M., JHA S., RATHNAYAKE U. (2023). Application of the Weighted Arithmetic Water Quality Index in Assessing Groundwater Quality: A Case Study of the South Gujarat Region. Water, Vol. 15, pp. 3512. doi: 10.3390/w15193512
PATIL R., AHMAD D., BALKUNDAE P., KAUSLEY S., MALHOTRA C. (2020). Development of low-cost point-of-use (POU) interventions for instant decontamination of drinking water in developing countries, Journal of Water Process Engineering, Vol. 37, Paper 101435. doi: 10.1016/j.jwpe.2020.101435.
PICHEL N, VIVAR M, FUENTES M. (2019). The problem of drinking water access: A review of disinfection technologies with an emphasis on solar treatment methods, Chemosphere, Vol. 218, pp. 1014–1030. do: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2018.11.205
PLUTZER J., KARANIS P. (2016). Neglected waterborne parasitic protozoa and their detection in water, Water Research, Vol. 101, pp. 318–32. doi: 10.1016/j.watres.2016.05.085.
RAJU S., SIDDHARTHAN T., MCCORMACK, M. C. (2020). Indoor Air Pollution and Respiratory Health. Clinics in chest medicine, Vol. 41, Issue 4, pp. 825–843. doi: 10.1016/j.ccm.2020.08.014
SADIA S., JOHAN E., MITSUNOBU S., SHUKLA E. A., MATSUE N. (2022). Effective washing removal of radioactive cesium from soils using adsorbents: A proposed adsorbent-coexistence method, Journal of Radioanalytical and Nuclear Chemistry, Vol. 329, pp. 1439–1445. doi:10.1007/s10967-021-07878-7
SARI S. Y. I., ALFIAN A. R., RESPATI T., AGUSTIAN D., RAKSANAGARA A. S. (2019). Comparison of drinking water quality following boiling, household filtration and water-refill in Urban-Slum Area, Journal of International Dental and Medical Research, Vol. 12, Issue 2, pp. 791–796.
SARITA S., NAIR R., MARASINI L. B., DHODAPKAR R., MARUGAN J., LAKSHMI K. V., MCGUIGAN K. G. (2023). Life cycle assessment comparison of point-of-use water treatment technologies: Solar water disinfection (SODIS), boiling water, and chlorination, Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering, Vol. 11, Issue 3, Paper 110015. doi: 10.1016/j.jece.2023.110015.
SELLAOUI L., BADAWI M., MONARI A., TATARCHUK T., JEMLI S., DOTTO G. L., BONILLA-PETRICIOLET A., CHEN Z. (2021). Make it clean, make it safe: A review on virus elimination via adsorption, Chemical Engineering Journal, Vol. 412, Paper 128682. doi: 10.1016/j.cej.2021.128682
SODHA S., MENON M., TRIVEDI K., ATI A., FIGUEROA M. E., AINSLIE R., WANNEMUEHLER K., QUICK R. E. (2011). Microbiologic effectiveness of boiling and safe water storage in south Sulawesi, Indonesia, Journal of Water and Health, Vol. 9, pp. 577–585. doi: 10.2166/wh.2011.255
SRIVASTAV A. L., PATEL N., CHAUDHARY V. K. (2020). Disinfection by-products in drinking water: Occurrence, toxicity and abatement, Environmental Pollution, Vol. 267, pp. 115474, doi: 10.1016/j.envpol.2020.115474
STOICA I. M., VITZILAIOU E., RØDER H. L., BURMØLLE M., THAYSEN D., KNOCHEL S., DEN BERG F. (2018). Biofouling on RO-membranes used for water recovery in the dairy industry, Journal of Water Process Engineering, Vol. 24, pp. 1-10. doi: 10.1016/j.jwpe.2018.05.004.
SUSANTO A., RIYANTO A., PUTRO E. K., AMRINA U., WILMOT J. C., QUDS S. M. (2022). Analisis kualitas air berdasarkan konsentrasi ozone (O3) pada penyediaan air minum (PAM) di gedung perkantoran, Jurnal Kesehatan Lingkungan Indonesia, Vol. 21, Issue 2, pp. 122-130. doi: 10.14710/jkli.21.2.122-130 (In Indonesia)
UGBOKO H. U., NWINYI O. C., ORANUSI S. U., OYEWALE, J. O. (2020). Childhood diarrhoeal diseases in developing countries, Heliyon, Vol. 6, Issue 4, pp. e03690. doi: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e03690
UMRIGAER J., MEHTA D. J., CALOIERO T., AZAMATHULLA H. M., KUMAR V. (2023). A Comparative Study for Provision of Environmental Flows in the Tapi River, Earth, Vol. 4, pp. 570-583. doi: 10.3390/earth4030030
UNICEF. (2015). Progress on Sanitation and Drinking Water: 2015 Update and MDG Assessment, World Health Organization, 90 p.
UNICEF INDONESIA. (2022). Water, sanitation and hygiene, United Nations Children’s Fund, 1 p.
WALSH T., MELLOR J. (2020). Comparative life cycle assessment of four commonly used point-of-use water treatment technologies, Journal of Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for Development, Vol. 10, Issue 4, pp. 862–73. doi: 10.2166/washdev.2020.158
WILHELM N., KAUFMANN A., BLANTON E., LANTAGNE D. (2018). Sodium hypochlorite dosage for household and emergency water treatment: Updated recommendations, Journal of Water and Health, Vol. 16, Issue 1, pp. 112–125 doi: 10.2166/wh.2017.012
WHO, UNICEF. (2021). Progress on household drinking water, sanitation and hygiene 2000-2020: Five years into the SDGs, World Health Organization & United Nations Children’s Fund, 162 p.
WHO. (2006). Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality, Vol. 1, 3rd ed. World Health Organization, 595 p.
WHO. (2015). Boil Water, World Health Organization, 2 p.
WHO. (2017). Diarrhoeal Disease. Fact Sheets 1–4, World Health Organization, 1 p.
WHO. (2022). Drinking-water, World Health Organization, 1 p.
YOU Y., VANCE G. F., SPARKS D. L., ZHUANG J., JIN Y. (2003). Sorption of MS2 bacteriophage to layered double hydroxides: Effects of reaction time, pH, and competing anions, Journal of Environmental Quality, Vol. 32, pp. 2046–2053. doi: 10.2134/jeq2003.2046
ZHANG S., WANG Y., LU J., YU Z., SONG H., BOND P. L., GUO J. (2021). Chlorine disinfection facilitates natural transformation through ROS-mediated oxidative stress, The ISME journal, Vol. 15, Issue 10, pp. 2969–2985. doi: 10.1038/s41396-021-00980-4
ZOTALIS K., DIALYNAS E. G., MAMASSIS N., ANGELAKIS A. N. (2014). Desalination technologies: hellenic experience, Water, Vol. 6, Issue 5, pp. 1134-1150. doi: 10.3390/w6051134.
Refbacks
- There are currently no refbacks.
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License.