THE ALGERIAN FOGGARA. PART 1: ORIGINALITY OF A HYDRAULIC SYSTEM

B. REMINI

Abstract


This article has two parts. It reveals some secrets hidden behind this ancestral hydro-agricultural development which has been operating for more than 30 centuries. During the period 1992-2024, several missions were carried out in the foggaras oases. Investigations and surveys were carried out among the owners of the foggaras and the Ksourian population. The first results obtained show that the know-how acquired on foggaras is immense. For the first time, new notions about foggaras have been introduced into the technical bibliography. In this first part, we established two types of foggaras: volumetric and hourly. The volumetric foggara is found only in Algeria and was dug in the oases of Gourara, Touat and Tidikelt which take the shape of a crescent. Approximately 80% of the total number, the volumetric foggara of exceptional ingenuity allows the gardens to be irrigated in parallel, it is equipped with a network of triangular seguias. As for the hourly foggara, it is less present on Algerian soil, the hourly foggara contains a network of branched seguias and makes it possible to irrigate the gardens in series, i.e. in turn. The majority of these foggaras are located in the Saoura valley. Part 1 of this paper demonstrates the originality of the Algerian foggara which is different from other foggaras in the 52 countries of the planet.


Keywords


Foggara, Volumetric distribution, Hourly distribution, Triangular network, Branched network.

Full Text:

PDF

References


ABIDI SAAD N., REMINI B. (2011). The foggaras of Touat: the pride of the local population, Annals of Science and Technology, Vol. 3, No 2, pp.107-113.

ADIN S. (2006). Qanat a unique groundwater management tool in arid regions: the case of Bam region in Iran, International symposium on groundwater sustainability.

ABOUEI R. (2006). Conservation of badgires and qanats in Yazd central, Iran. The 23th conference en passive and low Energy Architecture, Geneva, Switzerland, pp. 6-8.

AL-MARSHUDI, A.S. (2001). Traditional Irrigated Agriculture in Oman, Water International, No 26, pp. 259–264.

AL MARSHUDI AS. (2007). The Falaj Irrigation System and water allocation markets in northern Oman, Agricultural water management, No 91, pp. 71-77.

ARRUS R. (1985). Water in Algeria from imperialism to development (1830 -1962), Office of University Publications Algiers, Presses Universitaires de Grenoble, 388 p.

AL SULAIMANI Z.B., HELMI T., NASH H. (2007). The social importance and continuity of falj use in northern Oman, International History, Seminar on Irrigation and drainage, Teheran, Iran, pp. 2-5.

AL-KINDI, K.M., ALQURASHI, A.F., AL-GHAFRI, A.; POWER, D. (2023). Assessing the Impact of Land Use and Land Cover Changes on Aflaj Systems over a 36-Year Period, Remote Sensing, Vol. 15, https://doi.org/10.3390/rs15071787

AHMADI H., SAMANI A.N., MALEKIAN A. (2010). The Qanat: A Living History in Iran. Book Water and Sustainability in Arid Regions (Springer Edition), Chapter 8, pp. 125-138.

AZIMI, A., MCCAULEY D. (2002). Afghanistan’s Environment in Transition”, 1st Edition, Asian Development Bank, Manila, Philippines, pp. 1–12.

AL-GHAFRI A. (2018). Overview about the Aflaj of Oman, Proceeding of the International Symposium of Khattaras and Aflaj, Erachidiya, Morocco, October 9.

AL GHARFI A., NORMAN WR., INAN T., NAGSAWA T. (2000). Traditional, Irrigation scheduling in Aflaj Irrigation systems of case study of Falaj Al Hageer, Proceeding of the first International symposium Qanat, Vol. VI, Yazd, Iran, pp. 37-42.

AL-HATMI H.K., AL-AMRI S.S. (2000). Aflaj Maintenance in the Sultanate of Oman, in the Proceeding of the First International Symposium on Qanat, Vol. IV, pp. 154-161.

BEN BRAHIM M. (2003). The khettaras of Tafilat: past, present and future, International communication Frontnus-symposium, October, Walferdange, Luxembourg.

BEN BRAHIM M. (2008). Traditional irrigation and socio-cultural constructs in the Tafilalt Oases (Moroccan South-East), 2nd International Congress on “Oases and sustainable tourism”, Zaragoza, August 7-11, Spain.

BEAUMONT P. (1989). The qanat: a means of water provision from groundwater sources, In Beaumont P., Bonine M., McLachlan K., Eds, Qanat, Kariz and Khettara, Wisbech, Menas Press, pp. 13–31.

BERAAOUZ M., ABIOUI M., HSSAISOUNE M., MARTÍNEZ FRÍAS J. (2022). Khettaras in the Taflalet Oasis (Morocco): contribution to the promotion of tourism and sustainable development, Built Heritage, Vol 6, No 24, pp. 2-16.

BAALI E., AZOUGGAGH M., AHL RCHID O. (2002). Water pumpumg for irrigation in southern Moroccan Oasis, International Research on food security, natural resource Management and rural development, Kassal-Witzenhausen, October 9-11.

BALLAND D. (1992). Hidden waters, publications of the Department of Geography From the University of Paris Sud, France.

BISON J. (1990). Permanence of a peasantry in the Algerian Sahara: the example of the confines of the Grand Erg Occidental, Options Méditerranéennes, Série A/No 11, Oasis agricultural systems, pp. 289-298. (In French)

BANKS D., SOLDAL (2002). Towards a policy for sustainable use of groundwater by non-governmental organisations in Afghanistan, Hydogeology Journal, No 10, pp. 377-392.

BEZZA M. (2006). Overviewof the history of water resources and irrigation management in the near east region. 1er IWA International symposium on inter and wasterwater technologies in ancient civilization, Iraklio, Greece, October 28-30.

BOUSTANI F. (2008). Sustainable water utilization in arid region of Iran by qanats, Proceeding of world academy of science engineering and technology, Vol. 33, pp. 213-216.

BRIANT P. (2001). Irrigation and drainage in antiquity, qanats and underground pipelines in Iran, Egypt and Greece, Editions Thotm, Paris, France,190 p.

BOCCUTI S., FERRARI A., PINGUE G., DI LUZIO E. (2022). Qanat, una tecnologiadel passato, una risorsa per il futuro: riferimenti storici, aspetti socio-economici e repertorio tipologico Archeologia Calcolatori Vol. 33, No 2, pp. 153-174, doi 10.19282/ac.33.2.2022.09.

CARLIER M. (1980). General hydraulics. Editions Eyrolles, Paris, France, 565 p.

CLOUET Y., DOLLE V. (1998). Aridity, Oases and small production, hydraulic requirements and social fragility: an approach by spatial and socio-economic analysis, Drought Review, No 2, Vol. 9, pp. 83-94.

CRISTINI A., LANGLAIS S. (2004). The qanat: an ancestral capture device, H2O, No 46, pp.10-11.

CENESTA (Centre for sustainable development) (2003). Qanat Irrigation systems: an ancient water distribution system allowing specialised and diverse cropping in descent regions of Iran, Report proposal for a candidate site of globally important ingenious agricultural system (GIAHS), 21p.

DIGARD J.P., BRIANT P. (2001). Irrigation and drainage in antiquity, qanats and underground pipelines in Iran, Egypt and Greece. Editions Thotm, Paris, France, 190p.

DOLLE V. (1998). Oasis agriculture, a long history, what future? « Secheresse » Review, No 2, Vol. 9, pp. 81-82.

EL FAIZ M., RUF T. (2010). An Introduction to the Khettara in Morocco: Two Contrasting Cases. doi: 10.1007/978-90-481-2776-4_10.

GHACHI M., REMINI B., HAMOUDI S. (2021). The foggaras of Ezzaouia oasis (Algeria): the water always flows under the sand, Technology Reports of Kansai University, Vol. 63, No 2, pp. 2113-7128.

GHACHI M., REMINI B. (2018). Irsan: the largest foggara of Tidikelt (Algeria) in decline, Journal of Water Sciences & Environment Technologies, Vol. 3, No 1, pp. 279-248.

GHAYOUR H. (2000). A new review on geographical distribution of qanats in different regions of Iran, in Proceedings of the First International Conference on Qanat, Yazd, Iran, pp. 23-34.

GOBLOT H. (1963). In ancient Iran, water techniques and great history, Annals, Vol. 18, No 3, pp. 499-520.

GOBLOT H. (1979). Qanats: a technique for acquiring water, Paris, Mouton, 231 p.

GOLDSMITH E., ILDYARD N. (1984). The Qanat of Iran, The social and Environmental-Effects of large dams, chapter 21, Vol.1, overview, wedebridge ecological centre worthyvale Manor camelford.

GONZALEZ ANDRICANI C., BAZURCO M. (2004). Local knowledge and water management systems in Audean communities, Filter galleries in souther potosi, Bolivia, La Paz, pp. 1-7.

GHORBANI B. (2007). A glance at historical Qanats in Iran with an emphasis on Vazvan Qanat in Isfahan, in Proceedings of International History Seminar on Irrigation and Drainage, Tehran, Iran, International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage (ICID), pp. 165-172.

GUILLERMOU Y. (1993). Survival and social order in the Sahara, The Oases of Touat-Gourara-Tidikelt in Algeria, Cahier des Sciences Humaines, Vol 29, No 1, pp. 121-138.

HAMDAOUI T.M., REMINI B. (2020). Evolution of traditional water collection techniques in the Algerian Sahara, GeoScience Engineering, DOI 10.35180/gse-2020- 0045, Vol. 66, No 4, pp. 204–222.

HUSSAIN I., ABU-RIZAIZA O.S., HABIB M.A.A., ASHFAQ M. (2008). Revitalizing A Traditional Dryland Water Supply System, The Karezes in Afghanistan, Iran, Pakistan and the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, Water International, Vol.33, No.3, pp. 333–349.

HIMAT A., DOGAN S. (2019). Ancient Karez System in Afghanistan: The Perspective of Construction and Maintenance, Academic Platform, Journal of Engineering and Science Vol 7, No 3, pp. 347-354,

HOFMAN (2007). Is traditional water management by qanat in Iran compatible with the concept of IWRM? Technical summary, Engref center of Montpellier, 17 p.

HUSSAIN I., SIRAJ ABU RIZAIZA O., HABIB MOHAMED AA., ASHFAQ M., (2008). Révitalizing a traditional dryland water supply system, The karezes in Afghanistan, Iran, Pakistan and the Knigdom of Saudi Arabia, Water International, Vol. 33, No 3, pp. 333-349.

KHARDI Y., LACOMBE G., KUPER M., TAKY A., BOUARFA S., HAMMANI A. (2023). Pump or disappear: the dilemma of strengthening khettaras by solar pumping in the oases of Morocco, Agriculture Notebooks, Vol 32, No 1,

https://doi.org/10.1051/cagri/2022030, www.cahiersagricultures.fr

KARIMI S. (2003). Qanat as the symbol of the native Iranians in water harvesting from groundwater resources, 3rd IWHA conference, December 11-14, Alexandria, Egypt.

KOBORI, I. (1980). Qanawat Romani of Taibe Oasis, Tokyo, University of Tokyo, Department of Geography, 98 p.

KOBORI I. (1982). Case studies of foggara Oases in the Algerian Sahara and Syria, Tokyo, Tokyo University, Department of Geography, report No 2, 45 p.

KOBORI, I. (1990). The qanat in Syria”, In Geyer B. (Ed.), Traditional Hydro-Agricultural Techniques and Practices in Irrigation, Vol. 2, Paris, Librairie Orientaliste Paul Geuthner, pp. 321–328.

KOBORI, I., TAKAHASI, Y., KAWANO S. (1980). The water system of Taibe Oasis”, In Kobori, I. (Ed), Qanawat Romani of Taibe Oasis, Tokyo: University of Tokyo, Department of Geography, pp. 53–82.

KHAN M.J., PACHA G., KHATTAK M.S., OAD R, (2015.) Water Distribution of Traditional Karez Irrigation Systems in Afghanistan, Irrigation and Drainage, No 64, pp. 169–179.

L’HOTE Y. (1990). History of the concept of the water cycle and the first hydrological measurements in Europe, Continental Hydrology, Vol. 5, No. 1, pp. 13-27.

LIGHHTFOOT D.K. (1996). Moroccan Khettara: traditional Irrigation and progressive Desiccation, Geoforum, Vol 27, No :2, pp. 261-273.

LIGHTFOOT DR. (1997). Jordanian Qanat Romani: qanats in the Levant: hydraulic Technology at the periphery of early empires, Technology and culture, Vol 38, No 2, pp. 432-451.

LIGHTFOOT DR. (2001). Traditional Wells as phreatic barometers: a view from qanats and tabe wells in developing arid lands, Water security in the 21 th century.

LYNN TEO S., AZZI R. (1992). Oman’s unforiling springs, Revue Saudi Aramieg world, Vol. 43, No 6, pp. 26-31.

LI Q., GUO H., LUO L., WANG X., YANG S. (2023). Impact Analysis of Land Use and Land Cover Change on Karez in Turpan Basin of China, Remote Sensing, Vol. 15, Paper ID 2146, https://doi.org/10.3390/rs15082146

MAGHREBI M., NOORI R., SADEGH M., SARVARZADEH F., ERFANIAN A., AKBARZADEH AE., KARANDISH F., BARATI R., TAHERPOUR H. (2022). Anthropogenic decline of ancient, sustainable water systems: qanats. Groundwater, doi: 10.1111/gwat.13248

NORMAN W., SHAYYA R., WALID H., AL-GHAFRI A. (1998) Irrigation Water Costs and Management Practices Among Farms in Northern Oman, Journal of Scientific Research, Agricultural Sciences, Vol.3, Sultan Qaboos University, Oman, pp 1-8.

OLIEL J. (1994). Foggaras: an original irrigation system. Jews in the Sahara; Touat in the Middle Ages, CNRS History, 188 p.

PAPY L. (1959). The decline of foggaras in the Sahara, according to recent work, Overseas notebooks, Flight, Vol. 12, No. 48, pp. 401-406.

POURAGHNIAEI M.J., MALEKIAN A. (2001) Qanat in mountainous and plateau regions, in International Colloquium on Origin and History of Hydrology, Dijon, Université de Bourgogne, France.

PIERRE J.L. (2001). The mountains and people in a semi-arid environment: the example of the economy of the Tineghir palm grove, Liaison bulletin of history – geography teachers of the Reims academy, No 25, 3p.

QURESHI AS. (2002). Water Resources Management in Afghanistan: The Issues and Options. International Water Management Institute, Working Paper 49, Pakistan Country, Series No. 14.

REMINI B., ACHOUR B., KECHAD R. (2010). Types of foggara in Algeria, Water Sciences Review (Canada-France). Vol. 23, No. 2, pp. 105-117.

REMINI B. (2011). The foggaras of the Sahara oasis belt: past, present and future. Doctorate in science. Mohamed Khider-Biskra University, 217 p.

REMINI B., ACHOUR B. (2013a). The foggaras of In Salah (Algeria): the forgotten heritage. Larhyss Journal, No 15, pp. 85-95.

REMINI B., ACHOUR B. (2013b). The qanat of the greatest western Erg, Journal American Water Works Association, Vol. 105, No 5, pp. 104-105.

REMINI B., ACHOUR B. (2013c). The foggaras of Ahaggar: Disappearance of a hydraulic heritage, Larhyss Journal, No. 14, pp. 149-159.

REMINI B., ACHOUR B., KECHAD R. (2014a). The collecting of groundwater by the qanats: a millennium technique decaying, Larhyss Journal, No 20, pp. 259-277.

REMINI B., ACHOUR B., KECHAD R. (2014b). The sharing of water in the oases of Timimoun heritage cultural declining, Larhyss Journal, No 18, pp. 7-17.

REMINI B., ACHOUR B., KECHAD R. (2014c). The Foggara: a traditional system of irrigation in arid regions, Geoscience Engineering Journal, Vol. LX, No 32, pp.32-39.

REMINI B., REZOUG C., ACHOUR B. (2014d). The foggara of Kenadsa (Algeria), Larhyss Journal, No 18, pp. 93-105.

REMINI B., ALBERGEL J., ACHOUR B. (2015). The Garden Foggara of Timimoun (Algeria): The Decline of Hydraulic Heritage, Asian Journal of Water, Environment and Pollution, Vol. 12, No 3, pp. 51–57.

REMINI B. (2016). The role of the gallery in the functioning of the Foggara, Journal of water and land development, No 29, pp.49–57.

REMINI B., ACHOUR B. (2016). The water supply of Oasis by Albian foggara: an irrigation system in degradation, Larhyss Journal, No 26, pp. 167-181.

REMINI B., ACHOUR B. (2017). The Foggara of Moghrar (Algeria): An irrigation system millennium, Journal of Water Sciences & Environment Technologies, Vol. 2, No 1, pp. 111-116.

REMINI B. (2017). The Foggara of Tademait: without energy from the water from the subsoil to the surface of the ground, Larhyss Journal, No 32, pp. 301-325.

REMINI B., GHACHI M. (2019). Sharing the waters of the Irsan foggara of In Ghar oasis (In Salah-Algeria), Larhyss Journal, No 37, pp. 93-114

REMINI B. (2019). The Foggaras of the Sahara: sharing the water, the work of oasis genius, Larhyss Journal, No 39, pp. 25-57.

REMINI B. (2022). In the footsteps of the foggaras, Larhyss Journal, No 52, pp. 117-162.

REMINI B. (2023). When the foggara ensures the water security of the Oases, Larhyss Journal, No 3, pp. 219-257.

RIZK Z.S., AL SHARHAN S.A. (2003). Water resources in the United Arab Emirates. Water Resources perspectives: evaluations, Mangement and policy, Vol. 50, pp. 245-264.

SARGA, F. (2023). Archaeology of a Rural Qanat: Water Management and Social Relations in 17th Century Isfahan, Iran. Sustainability, Vol. 15, No 12, pp. 2-10. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15129463

SALIH A. (2006). Qanats a unique Groundwater management too in arid regions: the case of Bam region in Iran International symposium on Groundwater sustainability (ISGWAS), Proceeding, pp. 79-87.

SIMARSKI L.T. (1992). Qanat’s unfailing springs. Revue Aramco word, Vol. 43, No 6, pp. 26-31

SIMARSKI L.T. (1992). Oman’s unforiling springs. Revue Saudi Arameo world, Vol. 43, No 6, pp. 26-31.

STIROS SC. (2006). Accurate measurements with primitive instruments: the “paradox” in the qanat design, Journal of archaeological science, No 33, pp. 1058-1064.

VIQUEIRA J.P., PIMENTEL EQUIHUA J.L., RODRIGUEZ M.S. (2001). Tecnicas hydraulics in Mexico paralelismas con el Viejo Mundo : II Galerias Filtrantes (Qanat), XIII Economic History congress, Huesca, Espana, October 24, 25 and 26.

WATTMANN M., GONON T., THIERS C. (2000). The qanats of Ayn Manan in Kharga Oasis, Egypt, Journal of Archaemenid and researches, No 1, 8 p.

WALTHER C. (2009). Qanat of Irak, Reviving traditional knowledge for sustainable management of naturalresources, Unesco–unep, Introduction training world heritage, Nomination process of the Iraqi, Marshlands, June 29.

WESSELS J., HOOGGEVEEN R.J.A. (2002). Renovatuion of Qanats in Syria. Proceeding of a joust, UNV-UNESCO-ICARDA, International workshop, Alexandria, Egypt, September 21-25.

WULF H.E. (1968). The Qanat of Iran, Scientific American, pp. 94-105.

ZEKRI S., AL-MARSHUDI A. (2008). A millenarian water rights system and water markets in Oman, Water International, No 33, pp. 350-360.

ZAHER BIN KHALED A., HAMAD BIN KHAMIS AH., SAIF BIN SULAIMAN A.L., TARIQ H. (2008). Maintenance works of water structures, aflaj challenges in the Sultanat of Oman. Conference: WSTA The 8th Gulf Water Conference, Water in the GCC, Towards an Optimal Planning and Economic Perspectives, March 3-6, Manama, Kingdom of Bahrain.


Refbacks

  • There are currently no refbacks.


Creative Commons License
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License.